Power transformers are an essential component of the Alternating Current (AC) electrical power system, enabling the exchange of the electrical power between grids with different voltage levels. Power transformers must be built to withstand severe electrical and mechanical stress from transients and fault currents.

High-Temperature (HT) Low Sag (LS) conductors can operate at continuous temperatures over 100 °C without strength degradation due to annealing. At the same time, they have a sag performance better than their equivalent conventional conductors (and only similar sag performance at certain temperature ranges), known as ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced).

In today's European TSOs, asset management has generally shown a higher maturity for substation primary assets [1,2] than for overhead lines (OHL)/cables [3]. Moreover, its application to data and software is primitive despite the close attention paid to treating them as assets [4].

An alternating current (AC) circuit breaker refers to a mechanical switching device that is used to close or open an electrical circuit. Circuit breakers are capable of carrying and breaking currents under normal and abnormal (e.g. short circuit) grid conditions.

Digital fault recorders (DFRs) in the power system are devices that sample the analogue values of voltage and current and convert them to a digital format after being triggered by events or signals from protection relays. This digital data is then used for various analyses of electrical system performance. The analogue measurements are delivered by conventional voltage and current transformers or by modern sensors such as optical current transformers.

The technology supports the digitalization of DSO (Distribution System Operator) grids in both low-voltage (LV) and medium-voltage (MV) sectors. It enables real-time monitoring of key parameters such as voltage and power from the electrical grid.

The pan-European Transmission system is a Cyber-Physical System (CPS) with standards already framing their development: the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60870-5-101 [1] and the IEC 60870-5-104 [2]. Today, the IEC standard 61850 is the successor of such developments [3]:

Dynamic Line Rating (DLR) is a method for determining the actual current-carrying capacity (ampacity) of overhead transmission lines (OHL)s in (near) real time or in the future. Unlike static ratings, DLR dynamically adjusts the line rating based on actual weather conditions.

High-temperature superconducting (HTS) cables use superconducting materials that, when cooled to cryogenic temperatures (below -160°C), exhibit near-zero DC electrical resistance. In practical power applications, overall system losses still occur due to AC effects in the superconductor and the energy required for cryogenic cooling. HTS cables can therefore be attractive where the cooling energy and system losses are significantly lower than the losses of conventional cable alternatives for the same power transfer.